A great number of “popular heroes” exist in Chinese society. A “popular hero” is a person who is considered a hero by a major part of society and who, in most cases, makes common appearances in the media. But how can the “popular hero” be distinguished from the “popularized hero”? Some heroes might have been chosen by the people themselves, for whatever reason. Most of the Chinese heroes today, on the other hand, have been chosen by the government or the communist leadership and were later popularized by means of socialist propaganda. “Popularized heroes” therefore are created or chosen first and later presented to the general population as heroes. It does not really matter whether the heroes are fictional or real, since even the depiction of “real” heroes, that is, people who did exist, is carefully controlled by the CCP (Sheridan 1968: 47). In some cases, such as the famous Lei Feng (雷峰), it is not possible to distinguish between the fictional, invented hero and the real person (Landsberger n. y.).

In recent years, the socialist hero has gradually been replaced by a new type of hero, who has made his appearance in the mass media, especially in television series. As Kramer (2004: 379) points out, the television’s influence might exceed the influence of movies, as it transports images and message into the viewer’s living room and therefore his private life, whereas going to the movies is a public occupation. These new mass media heroes, as seen in some television series or movies, are not presented as socialist heroes. However, a comparison with the ideal of socialist hero reveals that their ideology shows interesting similarities.

The typical socialist hero experienced an upsurge during the Cultural Revolution (Zaniello 1977: 903). These “model heroes” were part of the revolutionary masses but stuck out through their selfless sacrifices and their ideological fervor, which made them valid role models (Zaniello 1977:907-8). (Yang 1998: 333-96) creates a number of quite useful categories to describe the typical Cultural Revolution hero as they appear in the fictional literature. Most of the heroes were youths, although besides the “Lei Feng” type of youthful soldier, a number of not so young workers or “good cadres” also appeared (Sheridan 1968: 49-50). Furthermore, nearly all of the heroes were unmarried, not only because of their age, but also because marriage and love were considered “bourgeois” and therefore despicable (Hsia 1963: 126-128). Emphasis was also put on the hero’s class background. The hero’s parents were most likely revolutionaries or heroic proletarians (Yang 1998: 39-48; Hsia 1963: 122). Physical beauty was not important, still, the heroes often have healthy bodies gained through hard work and a natural, unsophisticated bearing (Yang 1998: 49-59). Very important is that the heroes feature altruism and tend to sacrifice themselves for others. In this case, there is even less difference between real or fictional heroes. Heroes appearing in literature possess this characteristic (Yang 1998: 66-74), but so does a great number of “real” heroes. Their willingness to sacrifice themselves for the greater good seems to be their single most important attribute. Heroes like Ouyang Hai keep on working with severely burnt hands, powered by their ideological fervor (Sheridan 1968: 58-61).

Lately the genre of the so-called “Qing dramas” has become popular in China’s television. Set, as the name implies, during the Qing dynasty they are paying “tribute to the prosperity and national unity of the early Qing” (Zhu 2005: 3). Despite their seemingly enormous distance from the old worker-hero, we still may find similar elements in the depiction of heroism in these dramas. One example is Yongzheng Dynasty, broadcasted 1999 and directed by Hu Mei. The series shows emperor Yongzheng’s rise to power. Interestingly, Yongzheng has reputation a very similar to Qin Shihuangdi as being cruel and an enemy of the Confucian scholars. Contrary to this traditional image, the drama depicts Yongzheng as strong, just, and patriotic. He is shown fighting corruption and unyieldingly opposing evil Confucian officials. But he can be quite ferocious, should the need arise. E.g. he mercilessly suppresses a revolt against his tax reform, in which he links taxes to one’s possessions, which of course does not sit too well with the wealthy landowners. Yongzheng is aware of the fact that his reputation will not be good, but he does not care about his own well-being, he just cares for the well-being of his nation. While his siblings enjoy a life of luxury, Yongzheng leads a frugal life (Zhu 2005: 3-11). This reminds us of the typical socialist hero, who disregards wealth and comfort. On the other hand, dramas like Yongzheng Dynasty are about leaders, about people who stick out, not about the nameless socialist hero, who only distinguishes her or himself by his revolutionary fervor. Modern heroes are far more individualistic than the typical socialist hero; they can even be kings or emperors. These emperors are no longer models for everybody; they are extraordinary individuals whose abilities allow them to rule. While every person may strife to become a Lei Feng, only one person can be an emperor Yongzheng. Once again, the connection to the communist party as the strong leader is easily made. Those who are not part of the government should trust the party the way they would trust a wise emperor and be content with their lot. Still, dramas like “Yongzheng Dynasty” could be called a model: not a model for the right way of life (which was shown by the socialist model hero) but a model for the right political system.

The recent television series Admiral Shi Lang (施琅大将军) is another case in point, since it shows how Cultural Revolution style of depicting the hero such as the infamous “Three prominences” can still be useful to promote a completely different kind of national hero.
The “Three prominences” (san tuchu 三突出) have been used to highlight the hero’s positive features by contrasting him to other characters and by placing him in a certain surrounding. In Chinese socialist art and literature (especially in the famous Cultural Revolution model operas), all characters are either good or bad, there are no shades of grey (Yang 1998: 97-98). According to Yang, the “First prominence” is to contrast the hero to another positive character or hero, who nevertheless is not as perfect as the hero. This might be the hero’s friend, who is fooled by an evil counterrevolutionary or the hero’s parents, who admire their child’s revolutionary fervor, but simply cannot master the same amount of energy. Still, they have a lot of positive attributes, which sometimes influence the main hero. The “Second prominence” is to contrast the hero to a bad character. This character can either be evil, meaning intentionally hurting the hero, the revolution or somebody else, or bad, which could be somebody choosing the wrong way because of stupidity or low ideological awareness. Evil characters could be spies or hidden landlords, while bad characters might be capitalist-roaders who do not wish to sabotage the socialist cause but act out of misguidance. Such characters often change their course after a while. Both bad and evil characters show their inner weakness when confronted with the hero; they cannot stand before his awe-inspiring power. Evil characters often plot complicated schemes; still, they cannot fool the hero, who sees through their plans with ease. Lastly, the “Third prominence” means setting the hero in an appropriate surrounding. Socialist literature, art, and opera like to employ scenery to describe the hero, e.g. “high and towering mountains” might correspond to the hero’s strong and unfaltering personality, while scenery of wild and untamed beauty might show the hero’s natural and unsophisticated character (Yang 1998: 111-117).

Even if the “Three prominences” date back to the Cultural Revolution, they are still used today, as can be shown in the modern television series Admiral Shi Lang. This drama is set in the early Qing-Dynasty and tells the story of Shi Lang, a Qing-general bent on conquering Taiwan, which houses the last Ming-loyalists. In a similar vein as was the case with the Yongzheng emperor, Shi Lang has not been seen as a hero by the people. He was not part of the classic pantheon of national heroes which included Qu Yuan 屈原 (240 - 278 B.C.), Yue Fei 岳飛 (1103- 1142), Wen Tianxiang 文天祥 (1236-1282). In contrast, having defected to the Qing to fight his former lord, the popular hero Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) (Croizier 1977), he was long considered a traitor. Being a production of the Fujian communist party section, one task of the tv drama was to clear his record and establish him as a national hero side by side with his erstwhile enemy Zheng Chenggong (see introduction, chapter 5). Shi Lang is clearly a „popularized hero“.

Especially the first two of the “Three Prominences” are apparent in Admiral Shi Lang. Both deal with the characterization of the “main hero” (which is, of course, Shi Lang) with the help of side characters. Since Shi Lang is the character most concerned with the conquest of Taiwan, all the other characters must be measured by virtue of their interest in this matter.

The “First Prominence” is to contrast the “main hero” to other positive characters. Here, emperor Kangxi and his advisor Li Guangdi are such positive characters. The emperor is very idealistically depicted: he is strong, intelligent, decisive, and patriotic. His only fault is that he is less dedicated to the unification of the mainland and Taiwan. At first, the emperor prefers a peaceful solution, even if this means to acknowledge the Zheng’s rule of Taiwan. For Shi Lang, whose highest goal is a large, unified China, this is absolutely unacceptable (see episode s, Scene 2 and 6). Li Guangdi, Kangxi’s advisor, is at first introduced as an arrogant person (see episode 4, scene 8) who needs to be persuaded to even talk to Shi Lang. However, after this first obstacle has been overcome, he easily becomes an ardent follower of Shi Lang. He is also dedicated to the unification, but he does not pursue it with the same amount of energy Shi Lang does. He takes on a more passive role, advising Shi Lang and playing the middleman between Shi Lang and Kangxi. Thus, while both Kangxi and Li Guangdi are good and patriotic characters, they do not fight for the unification with Shi Lang’s passion. It is debatable whether this means they are meant to be less patriotic than Shi Lang or whether their priorities simply differ.

The “Second Prominence” is to contrast the “main hero” to evil or bad characters. In the case of Admiral Shi Lang, evil characters are actively fighting against the unification. Mainly, these are Feng Xifan and Tang Fei, leaders of the resistance movement in Taiwan. Next is Beile Laita, a corrupt Qing-prince, who is secretly working with the Ming-separatists. These characters are evil beyond simply being adversaries. Neither Feng Xifan nor Tang Fei has qualms about ordering assassinations. They even greet Zheng Jing’s death and simply pretend to mourn this loss because it furthers their own goals (see episode 17, scene 11). What is more, Feng Xifan is willing to allow the Dutch to establish strongholds in Taiwan, simply to repel the Qing and stay in power (see episode 32, scene 6). This would mean to return to the state before Zheng Jing had driven the foreigners out of Taiwan. Furthermore, it would mean giving control to a power that has no connection to the Chinese culture. While Kangxi is presented as a learned scholar, versed in calligraphy and Chinese history, the Dutch appear to be sleazy merchants. Beile Laita might be even worse than these two. While Feng Xifan and Tang Fei are of the opposing party, he is a full-blown traitor. As a Manchu-prince, he should be loyal to Kangxi by nature, but he betrays him and, as it is depicted in the series, his country.

One should also consider Shi Lang’s special status while comparing him to the evil characters. Shi Lang is a Han-Chinese and a former Ming adherent, thus, he would have reason enough to fight against the Qing. But his patriotism and his wish for a large and strong China caused him to change sides. This is shown to be the right choice, which only evil characters like Feng Xifan and Tang Fei cannot see. They are driven by their own hunger for power and do not appear patriotic in the slightest degree. Laita can be seen as being diametrically opposed to Shi Lang. While Shi Lang once fought for the wrong side and moved to the right side, Laita is part of the right side and decided to betray it to the wrong side.

Besides clearly evil characters, “Shi Lang da jiangjun” features a number of middle characters who belong to the wrong side but may be won over. One of those is Liu Guoxuan, the general leading the Ming-army. While being Shi Lang’s enemy, he is depicted as loyal, upright, intelligent, and brave. He will not take part in Feng Xifan’s schemes and even tries to give proof to Shi Lang of Laita's betrayal. (see episode 1, scene 4 and 7). Liu Guoxuan can be compared to the capitalist-roader in a model-opera who, in the end, accepts socialism as the right way. Liu Guoxuan, by being loyal to Zheng Jing and Tai Fei, is similarly misguided. Consequently, in episode 36 (scene 2), he is persuaded by Shi Lang to join his cause and accepts the unification as the “right way” for China. As can be seen, it is Shi Lang’s, the “main hero’s”, influence which steers the “bad” character back on the right path. He is the example which is followed by other characters. The young and weak prince Zheng Keshuang is a similar example. He is not evil per se, but a helpless pawn to Feng Xifan and Tang Fei. He acts only on their account, e. g. appointing Feng’s relatives to important posts (see episode 19, scene 12) and is not taken seriously by them (see episode 29, scene 8). Still, he later manages to express that he does not wish Taiwan to remain independent when the costs are too high (see episode 36, scene 6). In the end he surrenders to the Qing like Liu Guoxuan and his earlier opposition is forgiven (see episode 37, scene 4). Next to characterizing Shi Lang, Zheng Keshuang’s weakness also emphasizes Kangxi’s strength and intelligence. Both of them are rulers, but where Zheng Keshuang is a feeble pawn to others, who is not wise enough to make right choices, Kangxi acts decisive, e.g. by rooting out corrupt officials (episode 30, scene 2). He is presented as an ideal leader.

As for the “Third Prominence”, Shi Lang is less defined by his natural surroundings, as it was customary in model operas, but more by a number of props. The most prominent of those are the maps, some of them showing Greater China (including Taiwan), some showing Taiwan or the Penghu islands. Another important prop is Shi Lang’s military scale model of the coast of Fujian and Taiwan. Both, a map of Greater China and the scale model, are introduced in the very first episode (sene 6), when Shi Lang is shown in the intimate surroundings of his home for the first time. They are used to show Shi Lang’s strong dedication to unify Taiwan and the mainland as integrating Taiwan into the Qing-empire is always on his mind. This dedication, in turn, demonstrates Shi Lang’s patriotic spirit. These props are often present in the background; especially in scenes when Shi Lang ponders important decisions or launches one of his stirring speeches (see e.g. episode 2, scene 9; episode 7, scene 8; episode 19, scene 14). Thus, we are always reminded of Shi Lang’s patriotism, which drives him to strive for the unification.

Besides, there is one natural phenomenon that is used to characterize Shi Lang: the sea. Not only is Shi Lang considered an expert on currents and winds (see episode 8, scene 6 and 7), the ocean is also present in a few memorable scenes. In one of these, Shi Lang and his son rest on a rock at the seaside. Hu Ganjiang, bent on assassinating Shi Lang is so much moved by a poem, which Shi Lang recites, that he refrains from killing him and immediately adopts Shi Lang’s point of view (see episode 16, scene 15). The sea is even jointly presented with Shi Lang’s maps or his military scale model: when they are shown, sometimes the sound of waves can be heard (see episode 1, scene 6; episode 19, scene 14). Such natural phenomena were used in the Cultural Revolution’s model operas to describe the main hero in a few general terms. E.g. “mountains” might refer to strength, both physical and mental (Yang 1998: 111-117). Accordingly, the sea in Admiral Shi Lang can be interpreted as a metaphor for Shi Lang’s personality. First, similar to mountains, the sea can be seen as strong and powerful, thus characterizing Shi Lang as both. Second, the sea is large. This can be seen as a simile for Shi Lang’s inexhaustible energy to fight for the reunification. Third, the width of the horizon can be compared to Shi Lang’s far-sightedness when it comes to military decisions.

As shown by these examples, the Cultural Revolution’s method of presenting heroes through the “Three Prominences” is still used in socialist productions in modern China. Admiral Shi Lang is a prime example.